Critically analyse the effectiveness of United Nations Security Essay

Critically analyse the effectiveness of unite Nations security measures Council - Essay Examplenal law is not an empty promise. His rhetorics, however, were met with critical remarks from President Arias Sanchez of Costa Rica, who said that the United Nations had failed in its mission to make the world a safe place to live in. He criminate the UNSC of continuously turning a blind eye to blazonry proliferation, as well as to countries that refused to bless the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty. He added that it was not possible for the world to be safe, if arms proliferation was not given top priority on the international agenda. His sentiments were echoed by French President Nicolas Sarkozy, who spy that Iran and the Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea , who were right in front of us, had violated security department Council resolutions to stop the testing of ballistic missiles (Security Council SC/ 9746, 2009). He stressed the need fo r all Council decisions to prove effective by producing positive results. frontmost on the minds of the Heads of State, however, was how the permanent five-spot (P-5) members of the UNSC, and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), propose to work unitedly to solve the intractable nuclear issues that had existed since the Cold War. This essay seeks to analyze i) politics within the United Nations Security Council, ii) reform in the United Nations Security Council, iii) the Security Council today - 21st Century, and iv) the role of the Secretary-General.The first major(ip) setback that paralyzed the United Nations Security Council from managing and handling international security issues effectively, was the use of vetoes by the five permanent members (P-5)(P. Wallensteen, P. Johansson, 2004 20). During the Cold War period, a total of 193 vetoes were casted. Of these, forty-four were concerned with electing a new Secretary-General, liv concerned the election of new members to the organization, while the rest of the vetoes were used as a show of rejection of drawing off resolutions

The effects of achol on the health,mental power, and relations of Essay

The effects of achol on the wellness,mental power, and relations of users - Essay Examplese among the teenagers, children, pregnant women and elderly people is considered to have enormous health effects on both genders in the modern community. Specificity, this study explores the health effects of intoxicant abuse and drink on the modern teenagers and how these health effects influences their lifestyle.,It is significant to study the health effect of inebriant and alcoholism of teenagers because the modern society relates alcohol to current lifestyle and believes drinking alcohol is a way of relieving stress. Moreover, there has been a rapid increment in the number of teenagers drinking and abusing alcohol. The aim of the paper is also to discuss the health issues related to alcoholism and alcohol abuse (Healey and Justin pg.23).Effects of alcohol on the brain. Such brain functions as memory, coordination, and motor skills ar disturbed. Besides, researchers show that alcohol may have long-lasting effects as the brain continues to develop by age 20.Thus, alcohol is particularly hazardous for young users (Smart and Lesley, pg.43).In conclusion, alcohol abuse is a overserious social problem which requires particular attention. It may ruin a persons life. Therefore, timely service from the specialist is needed to help them manage the situation and find the solution to their issues. Occasionally, moderate drinking is unremarkably healthy. It may help a person relax, both mentally and physically (Healey and Justin, pg.6). Thus, moderate consumption of alcohol may be healthy or at least not harmful. Its effects depend on the

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND RATIOS ANALYSIS Assignment

FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND RATIOS ANALYSIS - Assignment ExampleThe dickens master(prenominal) financial statements (the Income Statement and Balance Sheet) are going to be analyzed in both cases together with some financial ratios. However, before embarking on the aforementioned task, each of these banking corporations is going to be considered individually in a bid to understand their backgrounds. This is going to be in the order in which they have been mentioned in the introduction part.Flagstar Bank is a banking institution known by the official name Flagstar Bank and Flagstar Bancorp enthronization Company acts as its holding company. It is headquartered at Troy, Michigan at the address 5151 Corporate Drive. Its website address is www.flagstar.com and its investor dealing phone number is (248) 312-2000 and in case an investor wants to send an e-mail there is a facility on the companys website to do that(investorsflagstar.com) plus an in case of any suspicion in dealing with F lagstar e-mail abuseflagstar.com. The stock exchange trading symbol for this company is FBC at NYSE.The current portion price is $0.79 and the companys stock is under Financial Industries and further narrows down to the bank sphere of NYSE. According to the 2009s annual report, there are ten directors of which eight are outside directors and two are inside directors. Outside directors are considered independent when it comes to the companys management decision fashioning and therefore, mindful of the impact of the decisions impact on the shareholders. This is a branch bank and it operates around 175 banking centers. (flagstar.com, 2011) common banking refers to a case where banking firms have a network of branches, several firm claims, offers a variety of run as well as taking part in corporate governance upon firms which depend on banks for sourcing funds. Flagstar bank is not a universal bank according to the opinion of the study. (Calomiris, 1995 p1)On the other hand, the

Biology Annotated Bibliography Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Biology - Annotated Bibliography Exampleaustralis is the least tolerant of modified environments.Though the think over is location-dependent, it as yet exemplifies a good scientific paper since the researchers were able to explicitly state their aims and their methods of going about their 12- course of instruction study. However, since it was indicated that later in the research, a newer technology (GPS) was used, I think that it would be better if the information monstrance included the tracked items via GPS. The suggestion would add another dimension (the power of technology) to the research but the need of it does not alter the completeness of the paper since even a sufficient corroborateground information and the significance of the study were provided.Lloyd, K. M., W. G. Lee, and S. Walker. 2006. Takahe valley Hut a focal point for weed invasion in an disjointed area of Fiordland National Park, in the raw Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology Vol. 30(3) 371-375.The s tudy aimed to look at back rustic recreational facilities as focal points for the cattle farm of weeds. The research that was done in Takahe Valley Hut of the Fiordland National Park in New Zealand was able to conclude that grasses are the most encroaching(a) plant forms and that among the different types of land areas, bogs and forestly are the most resistant to invasion. The methodology of the study provided site, and climate descriptions, as well as vegetation sampling in the studied area. Moreover, ordination was utilized to analyze the data from the vegetation sampling done.The study is greatly dependent on location however, this is not the main evidence why the paper can not be considered as a good example of scientific writing. The problem lies with the lack of background information regarding the characteristics that make a plant form exotic, invasive and/or native. Though almost everyone may have a sense of what an exotic plant is, the term should aim definite limits b ecause readers should not be left guessing whether the plant is exotic in the world, the whole country of New Zealand or just the southern portion of the said country. The research may be aimed at providing more information for the locals of New Zealand but this does not mean that the data should be presented in such(prenominal) a way that familiarity is easily assumed and even, at the expense of completeness.----------------------Writers note the articles are available on-line(a) at http//www.nzes.org.nz/nzje pls note that the capitalized letters in the journal article title indicate proper nouns----------------------Johns, P. M., and B. Boag. 2003. The spread and distribution of terrestrial planarians (Turbellaria Tricladida Geoplanidae) within New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology Vol.27(2) 201-206.Abstract The New Zealand flatworm, Arthurdendyus triangulatus (formerly Artioposthia triangulata) has conk out established in the British Isles and the Faroe Islands and its hu man-mediated spread within Northern Ireland and Scotland is well documented. The geographical distributions within New Zealand of it and two related species, A. australis and A. testacea have always been assumed to reflect the natural distribution patterns. However, an analytic thinking of the vegetation groups where the flatworms are presently found suggests that within New Zealand

Translate Niches or Gaps Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Translate Niches or Gaps - Assignment ExampleThe topic of the analyse is, Impact of the network on information literacy and library skills. There is no doubt that numerous studies experience been conducted on the same topic. It is also true that with the introduction, development, and advancements of the internet, information literacy and library skills rich person tremendously improved. In the present-day(a) society, studies are now able to develop their research methods and achieve a good sense of plagiarization through particularised software (Correia & Teixeira, 2003). In addition, there is an extensive use of web 2.0 applications as swell as search engines such as the Wikipedia and Google that has enabled students and other stakeholders to increase their information literacy and library skills (Correia & Teixeira, 2003). Indisputably, the internet has had a major impact on information literacy and library skills within the contemporary environment.Despite earlier studies and researches on the impact of the internet on education, very little has been done on specific items such as information literacy and library skills. Most previous studies and researchers have only been able to generalize the impact of the internet on education and probably acquisition of information. Specific skills such as library and information literacy have rarely been studies. Even in the few cases that such studies have been conducted, the research is not intensive and extensive. In this respect this research aims at finding out more about the specific impact of the internet. The specific impact of the internet to be addressed in this paper includes the information literacy and the library skills.Even though many researches and studies have been carried out on the impact of the internet on broad perspectives such as education, it is tacit evident that new advancements and developments arise within the internet. There are numerous dynamics still being experienced within the concepts of the

Fire Sprinklers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

burn off Sprinklers - Essay ExampleSmoking is one, even in smoke free buildings, you cant watch what your employees do at all times, and it only takes one cigargontte to start a go off. Improper storage of flammable materials that ar being stored near the source of heat is also a great risk. Sometimes faulty wirings and wearied out cords are also causes of starting advance. With the improper maintenance of heat source, stimulates are lots caused by the errors done by workers in handling hot machineries.In the recent statistics, commercial fire sprinklers can cut fire damage costs to about 90%on average. With the installation of fire sprinklers, there would be no need to provide as much access for fire trucks, which kernel bigger lots and fewer hydrants. With the installation of fire sprinklers, less water is needed to extinguish a fire. Commercial fire sprinklers can save millions of dollars in damages, because commercial fires can be very tragic, with lives that are lost and livelihoods are ruined. Fire sprinklers are very effective because these are the only means of preventing fire actively. Fire sprinklers are protectors of your building, hence your workers, and your business as well. These days, commercial building owners, decides that this kind of protection is expenditure more that its price.

Targets of Anti-metastatic Drug Development Essay

Targets of Anti-metastatic Drug Development - Essay ExampleTherefore, in this literature review, the paper describes some of the candidate targets for the anti-metastatic drugs development and the progress that has been made, so far, in developing telling drugs.It is clear that driving oncogenic mutations are necessary for metastasis. A number of the oncogenic mutations so far identified be active cell fate regulation, genomic maintenance and cell survival (Glinsky and Raz, 2010, p. 1788). . These initiating and resultant progression events may also knock over out indispensable for metastases establishment at a secondary site. Patient analysis has shown that agents targeting oncogenic mutations or amplifications, much(prenominal) as mutant BRAF in melanoma, amplified HER2 in breast-cancer, have demonstrated substantial effects controlling metastatic disease (Platt and Raz, 1992, P. 438),.Nonetheless, metastasis disease treatment might be sophisticated by the differential demonstr ation, activity or a combination of oncogenes in metastases during metastatic recurrence (McGarty and Block, 2006, p. 151). For instance, HER2 expression is high in estrogen receptor (ER)+HER2- of luminal breast cancer cells via tumour necrosis factor fantasticfamily member 11-RABKL signalling in the microenvironment of bones. The effectiveness of targeted therapies concerning metastatic environments is presently limited through the drug resistance that often happens in metastatic relapse. Resistance of this spirit is always because of the coming up of de novo mutations. Furthermore, the adaptive ability of oncogenic signalling networks for overcoming monotherapy attract new drug targets as fountainhead as strategies for inhibiting feedback-regulated pathways. Therefore, constant efforts to maximize target therapies for such oncogenic drivers and to defeat drug resistance will be essential for treating metastatic disease.It has been found that tumour cells augment their intrinsic mobility through adopting cellular programs that

New Media and Consumer Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

New Media and Consumer Behaviour - Essay ExampleThe natural media not only offers various benefits for consumers still also has allowed the consumers to promote their goods and services. Popular social and networking sites like Facebook, Twitter, eBay, YouTube etc. have make possible for the radiation diagram consumers to become suppliers and vendors through the new media. These revolutionary advancements challenge the typical business models which have been there since decades. The traditional ways of developing strategies, finding customers, marketing and advertising dont seem that useful now. (HENNIG-THURAU ET AL.2010 EVANS & BRATTON.2008) tender MEDIA- THE NEW MEDIA Social media is also called Web 2.0 which allows users to interact with each other through new technologies. The new technology has empowered the users which now allow them to share information in a way that wasnt possible before. Social media includes networking sites, consumer review sites, online communities, j ournals and blogs controlled by individuals and companies. Now days people need to involve in conversation, that is talk about the thing offered. ... Joiners utilize the sites, blogs etc by using them while spectators are understood viewers of the content who view and read the content uploaded by different participants. Inactive participants are online barely they dont take part in the conversation any aspect. Businesses now realize the brilliance of actively participating in these conversations and influencing users minds for marketing their products. (HAWKINS, MOTHERSBAUGH & MOOKERJEE.2011 EVANS & BRATTON.2008) New media toilet be explained as Websites and other digital communication and information channels in which active consumers engage in behaviors that can be consumed by others both in real time and long afterwards regardless of their spacial location. (HENNIG-THURAU ET AL.2010). New media is made up of interactive communication and information channeling platforms. Acc ording to mentioned explanation the new media allows users to shift information anytime anywhere irrespective of their location. This information can be utilized not only directly but also in the long term. New media is digital which makes it cost effective. Like old actor of exchange of information, there is no cost involved in producing digital copies as it can be accessed by millions of people on internet. Consumers, thorough the new media can actively participate in free feedback about every aspect of value chain. New media is visible, that is any feedback, comments, reviews and blogs can easily be traced. The biggest favor offered by the new media is the real time access and exchange of information at anytime. The feedback posted and veritable in instant through chats, videos, blogs and reviews, making it easier for other readers to make an opinion regarding the product. Additionally new media has made interaction possible among

How will basic business skills play a role in your professional life Assignment

How will basic business skills play a role in your professional life - Assignment ExampleFor every input, that loop completes itself while generating an railroad siding against every input. In Python, we have for loops, while loops, and nested loops. For loop sets a loop variable and repeats the set of book of instructions for a set limit. While loop repeats the set of instructions while a certain anatomy is true. Nested loops contain loops within loops. An example of loops in real world is the expiration of session after a certain period of period. There are some websites that expire the users sessions after a set period of time. Hence, for example, the loop isAnswer Basic business skills enhance a persons decision-making and problem-solving skills. Without basic business skills, it takes much time and effort for an entrepreneur to come at par with the competitory business world. For example, effective communication is a very basic business skill. It is the key to success as yo u can better communicate and negotiate with your partners, stakeholders and clients. Other helpful basic business skills include time management, goal setting, relationship building and desire to learn (CBS Interactive, n,d).CBS Interactive. (n.d.). 12 business skills that will never, ever go out of style. The Bulletin. Retrieved February 8, 2015, from

Critically examine the distinctions between explanatory and Essay

Critically examine the distinctions between explanatory and constitutive theories of International Relations, illustrating your argument with insights from a novelty of theoretical perspectives - Essay ExamplePapp (2002) expresses that the profound insight into this arena, different theories pass been advanced by the scholars of this discipline. These theories not only help understand relations among the nations but also provide a complete good example of body for effective governance of the states and deal world politics at large.These theories include Realism, Neo-realism, Liberalism, Neo-liberalism, Constructivism, Idealism, Liberal Internationalism, Marxism, Functionalism and Post-structuralism etc which bull their existence as dominating thought of internationalistic system ever since emphasis on this disciplines has been laid upon. According to Donnelly (2000), these theories endeavour to provide a conceptual framework to comprehend the alkali of relations among the nati ons. In connection with asserting their actuality and validity, these theories take into account various assumptions for establishment of conceptualisation which have become mandatory under all circumstances for a profound insight into international relations. earlier going further, a look at these concepts which seek their origin from these theories is all the most necessary.They are Nation-state, eternal rest of Power, National Interests, Elements of Power etc. they draw their birth from this theoretical system of body. Importance of these theories can be understood from the fact that without a conceptual framework of these theories, understanding world politics through international relations concepts was not possible. Keeping aside all other theories, for instance Waltz (1979), current compete on distinction between explanatory approach and constitutive approach in international relations will be deal by this paper. These approaches were taken into consideration for the class ification of the international relations theories.In a practical perspective the realism is major participant in

Cell Theory Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Cell Theory - Assignment ExampleThe paper describes all the peculiarities of the cubicle theory. A cell organelle is the part of a cell that has a specific function. Organelles be unremarkably located inside the cytoplasm of a living cell, and are typically envelop in a membrane called plasma membrane. They are called organelles because their importance to a cell is analogous to the importance of organs of to a body. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have cell organelles however, there are some important differences between the two. The organelles in procaryotic cells are not organized or enclosed in plasma membranes. Major cell organelles acknowledge chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, nucleus and vacuoles. Chloroplasts have double membranes as wholesome as their own DNA, and perform photosynthesis. They are fork up in plants and some algae. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) has a hit membrane and is responsible for transport as strong as synthesis of proteins. It is of two types rough ER, whose clear appears to be rough because of the presence of ribosomes, and smooth ER, whose get up appears to be smooth. Golgi apparatus is also singe-membraned and is responsible for protein sorting and modification.... Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have cell organelles however, there are some important differences between the two. The organelles in prokaryotic cells are not organized or enclosed in plasma membranes. Major cell organelles include chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, nucleus and vacuoles. Chloroplasts have double membranes as well as their own DNA, and perform photosynthesis. They are present in plants and some algae. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) has a single membrane and is responsible for transport as well as synthesis of proteins. It is of two types rough ER, whose surface appears to be rough because of the presence of ribosomes, and smooth ER, whose surface appears to be smooth. Golgi appa ratus is also singe-membraned and is responsible for protein sorting and modification. The mitochondrion is also called as the powerhouse of the cell because it is responsible for energy production, and like chloroplasts, it also has a double membrane and its own DNA. The nucleus has both Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic acid (RNA) and is responsible for maintenance and strait-laced distribution of DNA during cell division. Vacuoles function as storage reservoirs of the cell. Minor organelles of the cell include autophagosomes that stash away material from the cytoplasm for degradation, centrioles that enable cell division, ribosomes that help in the production of proteins, lysosomes that are responsible for process or breakdown of large molecules into simpler ones, nucleolus that produces ribosomes, and vesicles that function as material transporters in the cell. Many other organelles exist based on the type of organism.

Malathion, the Benefits of its Application Outweighs the Validated Article

Malathion, the Benefits of its Application Outweighs the Validated Risk - Article recitationThey further assured that the chemic application is safe because it degrades to harmless materials rapidly after application (Agency for hepatotoxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2005, Section 1).But the opponents argued that some sector of Genericville City community whitethorn be allergic to the potential hazards of Malathion contamination. They estimated there could be as many as 90 cases of Malathion related illnesses from the proposed application political platform with four that may be fatal according to reports (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2005, Section 3).At military post in this situation, aside from the sentry duty of the residents and its ecosystem is the economy of the city, which depended on tourism. Without the pesticide application, tourists would be hesitant to come to the city. With the use of the chemical the ecosystem that is the best asset fo r tourism may be affected. Choosing the best option, therefore, requires weighing the benefits against the risk and finding a win-win solution.To obtain a rational decision let us take apart the veracity of the arguments presented by two the proponents and opponents of using Malathion and equate them with information at hand. The arguments revolve around the fact that Malathion is toxic to military man and useable insects within the ecosystem. The pros assured that the toxicity hazard is negligible while oppositions insisted it can cause the fatality. Let us, therefore, examine what authorities and studies have to say. As far as toxicity of the chemical is concerned, there are several(prenominal) ways of human exposure to the hazard either ingestion, inhalation, or by means of dermal means. Sources of exposures are through the air during and after spraying, on residues remaining on leaves and materials, and on contaminated water. The chemical dose that may be fatal to human is far greater than the possible exposure caused by both groundwork and aerial spraying using approved levels. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the EPA allow a upper limit amount of 8 parts per million (ppm) of Malathion to be present as a residue on specific crops used as foods.The risk associated with overdose or fatal dose is non-existent if proper safety precautionary measures are strictly followed. Much of the residues can be removed by washing. In fact, the US FDA approved the use of Malathion as a prescription drug for the treatment of head lice on humans (APHIS, 2006). The Environment Protection Agency (EPA) classifies Malathion as having suggestive evidence of carcinogenicity, but the evidence is not satisfactory to assess human carcinogenic potential (APHIS, 2006).

Consider how the problems of cognitive bias might have influenced this Assignment

Consider how the problems of cognitive separatrix might gravel influenced this remark - Assignment ExampleBlue machines are non the only fats cars in Britain but boy racers relieve oneself continuously selected them. This phenomenon can be associated with cognitive bias.People around us such as politicians, friends, politicians, sharp and salesmen among others tend to influence our decision making by providing information that leads to their expectations (Stanovich & West 2000). This leads us to various forms of bias such as Confirmation, in-group, gamblers fallacy, observational selection, post-purchase rationalization, and bandwagon effect biases among others other (Campbell 2010). One, two or more cognitive biases could soak up led boy racers in Britain to choose blue cars. Confirmation bias makes concourse agree with others who bedevil similar opinion (Campbell 2010). Many people feel better while in the group of others who mete out same ideas and are insecure while in group of people sharing different ideas. A boy racer feels better while with other racers owning blue race cars. Blue cars may not be the fastest but no one among the racers is able to believe that there are hurrying cars bearing other color. As long as they keep that opinion that blue cars are actually fast, they will remain to use them.Racers may have also developed in-group bias. This is the bias associated by people who stay close together or those who have similarities in beliefs or origin (Finucane et al 2000). The item that the boy racers are tied together by their age bracket and their fast driving habits, they have developed a close bond among them which makes them make similar choices as far as cars are concerned. This bias has led to their overestimation of blue cars ability to move faster than any other car. Gamblers fallacy bias may have also influence their choice of blue car (Sides et al 2002). This is a type of bias that leads people to believe that past event s influences future outcomes. If in the fast several blue cars won

Because current policies aimed at limiting drug abuse do not work, we Essay

Because current policies aimed at limiting drug yell do not work, we should legalize drugs and instead teach people to use them responsibly - Essay ensampleIt has been suggested, and in some cases demonstrated, that legalizing or at least decriminalizing less harmful drugs, such as marijuana, jackpot help to reduce the violence, significantly decrease the numbers of people incarcerated for drug use, allow much individuals to take a breather a contributing member of society and free up funds and manpower to combat against more harmful substances.It was believed by the economists that such a discussion would bring out the obvious factors that will snuff it to the legalization, regulation and taxation on marijuana, bringing out the benefits of each side and, at the least, justifies the reasons for maintaining the prohibition against the substance. This assemblage of economists was also joined by Nobel Prize winning economist Milton Friedman who argued that there is no logical dr y land for the prohibition against marijuana. (Friedman, 2005) The vast majority (85%) of Americas teenagers report that marijuana is easy to get all(prenominal) year, indicating that the sales have not been reduced by the laws and enforcement endeavors, leading many government officials to begin question whether we atomic number 18 simply throwing away billions of tax dollars to no effect.Over half of the prisoners in jail argon there for drug crimes. This causes overcrowding which results in the early release of dangerous, violent criminals. This creates more of a public asylum problem than does drug use. It is illogical from a societal view and inhumane to individuals who are marked as a criminal for life for activity that causes no harm to others. Those who are addicted receive pocket-size or no therapeutic help in prison. Instead of imprisoning people that need help, rehabilitation programs are a much more effective method to treat the problem but a rehabilitation system will not succeed if drugs continue to be illegal. Drug abusers will hardly prove help from the same government that tosses

Social Organization and Kinship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social Organization and Kinship - audition ExampleAs the paper discusses the well-disposed relationships argon quite important in the society. Some of the loving ends that are involved in the social set up of the society are socialization of the children and the establishment of the basic political, economic and religious groups. The kinship involves the people who are sharing the same lineage are in the categories of the descent group, affinity, cognate and the fictive kinship. The kinship associated with the marriage is referred to as the affinity related. Kinship is the concentrate of the social organization in various societies, and people understand that the kinship should be relevant to the social cognition. Kin is organized around binary distinctive features and is linguistically marked.This essay stresses that the type of the society where angiotensin-converting enzyme is living beguiles the persons interactions and the activities that the person can involve them. The t ype of the society has great influence on the different areas of the females egos life as the society determines the amount of the social keep going they get.In Native America, cultures allow the matrilineal approach where the family lineage is traced through the mothers and not the fathers. The women in the American culture they possess great power as they are treated as the center of the family and home.In the communities that practice the matrilineal approach of the family make up the males would live with the women after marriage at womans home.

Original Component Essay Example for Free

Original Component EssayThe goal was to de circumstanceine a credible and correct regularity for quantity human roof of the United States. Knowledge capital is a concept that has not received ofttimes attention in terms of research. One of the unique aspects of this vignette was the fact that the data collected were from the training technology field, particularly from those who deal with friendship watchfulness. This was in contrast to previous studies where finance, accounting, and/or human resources professionals were the respondents.The comeings indicated that the methods presently exercisingd to observe human knowledge were borrowed from either human resources or from finance. This also indicated that knowledge management was not embraced as a part of its strategy. Since the responses were received from knowledgeable experts, the results represented a trustworthy look-alike of the problem. Another reason for its uniqueness was due to the fact that the teach was conducted in two separate phases with their be findings compared. It was also important to note that the companies selected represented any of the industries.The combination of all these attributes thus, made the method unique. tally to previous studies, much research has been devoted to knowledge management. In addition, books, journals, and articles have all been written most the said topic. However, none has pore on knowledge capital valuation and its related impacts. Individuals and organizations became reluctant to be this type of valuation. This was due to the fact that many felt that it was impossible to accurately pass judgment knowledge capital.For this research, all of the respondents agreed that the methods to measure knowledge capital do not in full represent its true look on because they were only based on assumptions. On the other hand, companies, researchers, and scholars struggled with the question of how to value knowledge capital because it increasing ly gained importance. In this case, the study has formed a base for other researchers to build on. This study has also provided a way of perceiving knowledge capital and proposed an easier way of calculating its value.The study clarified the possibility of measuring knowledge capital. However, organizations can only measure the value of knowledge by identifying the knowledge gaps within its current employees. In this context, knowledge management must be incorporated at the highest levels of the organization. 6. 4 Contributions Knowledge capital has ferment one of the most important assets in any organization, including corporations, government agencies, and non-profit organizations. However, without knowing its value, organizations cannot determine whether they are fully utilizing it or not.Most Internet businesses have no physical assets, while some rely solely on outsourcing. Therefore, there is a need to determine the value of human capital to ascertain the value of an organiza tion. Moreover, many Internet businesses were publicly traded, and were obliged to represent the true and accurate value of their company to investors . During mergers and encyclopaedism transactions, companies experience the problem of determining the value of knowledge or human capital. In turn, they use the term good provide. However, goodwill is actually an invented concept.If companies can determine the value of their knowledge capital, there is no need to use the vague concept of goodwill. Knowing the value of knowledge capital helps a company hire the recompense people, assign the proper people to particular jobs, and provide employees with the appropriate tools and environment. Without knowing the value of what is needed, how can they measure knowledge capital or increase its value? This research aimed to contribute information to both the knowledge field and to profit-making organizations.The purpose of this research was to examine how organizations determine the value o f their human capital, while gaining a sustainable competitive advantage. The research effort will be applied by and for profit organizations to determine their true value, maximizing the value of human capital to increase the shareholders wealth. Individuals will understand the value of their human capital and be able to start managing it for maximum return to themselves, as well as their organizations.In addition, E-businesses will find the results useful because the value of their organizations depends primarily on the value of their intellectual capital. The study also focused on the determination methods used by profit-making organizations in the evaluation of human capital. Therefore, other researchers may find the results of this study relevant, while conducting other studies in the hereafter. 6. 5 Limitations Several difficulties or challenges were encountered while conducting this study that may have influenced results, either positively or negativelyLimitations faced by the researcher during the process of this study included the persuasion of organizations to adopt the new or standard metric of measuring Knowledge Capital, intercourse for benefits to be derived from findings, the lack of industrial experience and practical knowledge, and the deficiency of funds for quality productions. 6. 6 background for Future Research The purpose of this study was to determine how organizations value knowledge capital and how they make it grow.The study examined data collected across industries and the responses were nearly uniform. They all agreed that there is no standard method of measuring human capital. In addition, all agreed that the methods currently used to measure knowledge capital are inadequate for representing its true value. Hence, the value of knowledge capital is not calculated. Based on this study, the condition recommends that further research be conducted to develop a model or standard method for measuring knowledge capital across all indu stries. The model must be easy, accurate, and practical.Moreover, while conducting future research, future researchers should bear in mind the following recommendations It is important to be in partnership with someone who has industrial experience, or better yet, seek support or sponsorship from companies. This would also solve the problem of funding. Second, use a combination of data collection instruments, such as face-to-face interviews and questionnaires. Collect both quantitative and soft data to validate the results. Lastly, a year or two would be the best preference in conducting this research, especially it it is on a global scale.

Assessment and Students Essay Example for Free

perspicacity and bookmans EssayJournal measure outment Conclusion Reccomendation III. INTRODUCTION Why do Assessment? Are you petition too little of your class? Are your assimilators approaching your traverse as hurdlers, b bely advanceing compulsory levels of slaying? Or be they approaching your course like high jumpers, pushing themselves under your pleader to increasingly much ch solelyenging heights? If your scholarly persons atomic number 18nt high jumpers, maybe its beca design you arent beging them to high jump.By utilize appropriate assessment techniques, you support encourage your students to raise the height of the bar. There is consider suitable severalise protracting that assessment drives student teaching. More than anything else, our assessment tools propound students what we consider to be important. They will learn what we pop off them to learn through our assessments. Traditional testing regularitys have been limited measures of student training, and equ wholey importantly, of limited look upon for guiding student skill.These regularitys are often inconsistent with the increasing emphasis being placed on the ability of students to think analytically, to understand and communicate at both detailed and big picture levels, and to memorize lifelong skills that permit continuous adaptation to workplaces that are in constant flux. Moreover, because assessment is in many an(prenominal) respects the glue that links the comp mavinnts of a course its subject field, financial statemental methods, and skills development changes in the structure of a course require coordinated changes in assessment.IV. RESEARCH (CONTENT) What is Assessment? Assessment is a systematic put to work of gathering, interpreting, and acting upon data cogitate to student discipline and experience for the purpose of developing a sound understanding of what students know, understand, and behind do with their cognition as a result of their educational experience the r turn outine culminates when assessment results are used to improve subsequent learning. Huba and Freed, 2000Key Points Assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student learning Multiple methods Criteria and standards Evidence Students know, can do and understand Its more than just collecting data Sequence in Preparing Instructionally Relevant Assessment INSTRUCTION Indicates the learning outcomes to be attained by students LEARNING TASK Specifies the particular set of learning task(s) to be assessed. mind Provides a procedure designed to measure a representative sample of the instructionally relevant learning tasks.Is in that location close agreement? What is the Assessment Process? AIMS ASSESSMENT ACTION ADJUSTMENT Importance of Assessment To stick out what the students know (knowledge) To find out what the students can do, and how well they can do it (skill surgical process) To find out how students go about the task o f doing their work (process) To find out how students feel about their work (motivation, effort) What is Student Assessment for? *To help us design and modify programs to better provoke learning and student success. To grant common definitions and benchmarks for student abilities that will enable us to act more coherently and effectively to promote student learning. *To offer up feedback, guidance, and mentoring to students so as to help them better plan and execute their educational programs. *To provide improved feedback about student learning to support faculty in their work. Functions of Assessment Diagnostic tell us what the student needs to learn Formative tell us how well the student is doing as work progresses Summative tell us how well the student did at the end of a whole/task What can be assessed?Student learning characteristics -Ability differences -Learning styles Student motivational characteristics - intimacy -Self-efficacy -goal orientation Learning fill knowledg e Ability to apply content knowledge Skills Dispositions and attitudes functionings Direct and Indirect Assessment Measures Direct methods ask students to demonstrate their learning while indirect methods ask them to reflect on their learning. Direct methods include object tests, essays, case studies, problem solving exercises, presentations and classroom engagements. Indirect methods include surveys, interviews and student reflection and/or self-assessment essays.It is reclaimable to include both direct and indirect assessment measures in your assessments. How should we assess? True False peak Multiple Choice Completion Short Answer Essay Practical Exam ideas/Reports Projects Questionnaires Inventories Checklist couple Rating Self Rating Journal Portfolio Observations Discussions Interviews Criteria In Choosing an Assessment Method It should be reliable. It should be valid. It should be simple to operate, and should not be too costly. It should be seen by students and societ y in general. It should benefit all students. Who should be involved in assessment?The teacher The student The students peer closing maker Parents What should we do with the information from our assessment? call it to improve the focus of our teaching (diagnosis) Use it to focus student attention of strengths and weaknesses (motivation) Use it to improve program planning (program assessment) Use it for reporting to parents Classroom Assessment Paper and pencil assessments Ask students to respond in writing to questions or problem -Item level Assessing lower vs. higher(prenominal)(prenominal) skills -Knowledge vs. application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation -Authentic tasks e. . multiple choice, T/F, unified (recognition), short answer, essay (recall) Paper and Pencil Assessment Strengths -Can cover a lot of material reasonably well -Fair -Effective in assessing declarative knowledge of content Easier to retrace and administer than performance assessments Weaknesses -Requi re forethought and skill -Less effective in assessing procedural knowledge and creative sentiment -Construction of good higher level recognition items is difficult -Recall items that do a good job of assessing higher level thinking (essay questions) are difficult to write up.Performance Assessments assessment that elicits and prizes actual student performances Types of Performances Products drawings, science experiments, bourne papers, poems, solution to authentic problems Behavior time trial for running a mile, reciting a poem, acting tryouts, dance Performance assessments Strengths Effective for assessing higher level thinking and authentic learning -Effective for assessing skill and procedural learning -Interesting and motivating for students Weaknesses -Emphasize depth at the expense of breadth Difficult to construct -Time consuming to administer -Hard to score fairly How can we assess student learning? Traditional assessment assess student knowledge and skills in propor tional isolation from real world context. Traditional assessment practices reflect what students are able to recall from memory through various means, such as, multiple choice, true/false, fill in the blank, and matching questions. Authentic assessment assess students ability to use what theyve learning in tasks similar to those in the outside world.Occurs when the authenticity of student learning has been observed. It requires information from a variety of source such as content work samples, observation during class activities, and conferences with students. Classroom Assessment Informal Assessment teachers spontaneous, day to day observations of student performances. Examples Verbal -Asking questions -Listening to student discussions -Conducting student conferences Nonverbal -Observing -Task performances -On-and off-task behavior -student choices -student body languageInformal Assessment Strengths -Facilitates responsive teaching -Can be done during teaching -Easy to individual ize Weaknesses -Requires high level of teacher skill -Is undefended to -Bias -Inequities Mistakes Classroom Assessment Formal assessment assessment that is planned in advance and used to assess a predetermined content and/or skill domain. Strengths -allows the teacher to evaluate all students systematically on the important skills and concepts -helps teachers determine how well students are progressing over the sinless year -provides useful information to parents and administrators.Portfolios A collection of student samples representing or demonstrating student academic growth. It can include formative and summative assessment. It may contain written work, journals, maps, charts, survey, group reports, peer reviews and other such items. Portfolios are systematic, purposeful, and meaningful collections of students work in one or more subject areas. Importance of Portfolios For Students Shows growth over time Displays students accomplishment Helps students make choices Encourages t hem to take responsibility for their work Demonstrates how students thinkImportance of Portfolios For Teachers Highlights performance- base activities over year Provides a framework for organizing students work Encourages collaboration with students, parents, and teachers Showcases an ongoing curriculum Facilitates student information for decision making Importance of Portfolios For Parents Offer insight into what their children do in school Facilitates communication between blank space and school Gives the parents an opportunity to react to what their child is doing in school and to their development Shows parents how to make a portfolio so they may do one at home at the same timeImportance of Portfolios For Administrators Provides evidence that teacher/school goals are being met Shows growth of students and teachers Provides data from various sources What do portfolios contain? tierce basic models Showcase model, consisting of work samples chosen by the student. Descriptive mode l, consisting of representative work of the student, with no seek at evaluation. Evaluative model, consisting of representative products that have been evaluated by criteria. Disadvantages of Portfolio Require more time for faculty to evaluate than test or simple-sample assessment.Require students to compile their own work, usually outside of class. Do not substantially demonstrate lower-level thinking, such as recall of knowledge. May threaten students who limit their learning to cramming for doing it at the termination minute. Rubric It is a win guide that seeks to evaluate a students performance based on the sum of a full range of criteria rather than a single numerical score. It is a working guide for students and teachers, usually handed out before the assignment begins in order to rag students to think about the criteria on which their work will be judged.Rubrics are scoring criteria for Free-response Questions Scientific reports ad-lib or Power point presentations Refle ctions/Journals Essay Laboratory-based performance tests Article review or reactions Portfolios Many others open-ended Question Concept Mapping It requires students to explore links between two or more consortd concepts. When making concept maps, they clarify in their minds the links they have made of the concepts and having visual representation of these links, they are better able to rearrange of form new links when new concepts are introduced. Laboratory PerformanceIn this format students and teachers know the requirements in advance and prepare them. The teacher judges the student performance within a specific time frame and setting. Students are rated on appropriate and effective use of laboratory equipment, measuring tools, and safety laboratory procedures as well as a hands-on plan of an investigation. Inventories Diagnostic Inventories Student responses to a series of questions or statements in any field, either verbally or in writing. These responses may indicate an abili ty or interest in a particular field.Interest Inventories student responses to questions designed to find out past experience and or current interest in a topic, subject or employment. Classroom Assessment Presentation a presentation by one student or by a group of students to demonstrate the skills used in the completion of an activity or the acquisition of curricular outcomes/expectations. The presentation can take the form of a skit, lecture, lab presentation, contend etc. Computers can also be used for presentation when using such software as Hyperstudio, Powerpoint or Corel presentations.Peer Evaluation judgments by students about one anothers performance relative to stated criteria and program outcomes Journal Assessment This refer to students ongoing record of expressions experiences and reflections on a given topic. There are two types one in which students write with minimal manner what he/she is thinking and or feeling and the other requires students to compete a spec ific written assignment and establishes restrictions and guidelines necessary to accurately accomplish the assignment. Journals can evolve different types of reflecting writing, drawing, painting, and role playing.REFLECTIVE JOURNAL What did I learn? How do I feel about it? What happened? SYNTHESIS JOURNAL How I can Use It? What I learned? What I Did? SPECULATION ABOUT EFFECTS JOURNAL What could happen because of this? What happened? V. CONCLUSION A fair assessment is one in which students are given equitable opportunities to demonstrate what they know and can do. Classroom assessment is not only for grading or ranking purposes. Its goal is to inform instruction by providing teachers with information to help them make good educational decisions.Assessment is integrated with students day-to-day learning experiences rather than a series of an end-of-course tests. Why link assessment with instruction? mitigate assessment means better teaching. Better teaching means better learning . B etter learning means better students. Better students mean better opportunities for a better life. VI. RECCOMENDATION Specific assessment tools, listed below, are strongly recommended to faculty and department heads for their ability to provide useful information for accountability and, more importantly, to treasure dialogue to improve student learning within courses.These three assessment tools are strongly recommended because they are concise and effective direct evaluations as opposed to indirect evaluations. Direct evaluations can be both formative (the gathering of information about student learning during the progression of a course or program, usually repeatedly, to improve the learning of those students) and summative (the gathering of information at the conclusion of the course, program or undergraduate career to improve learning or to meet accountability demands. ) 1.RubricsThese are the most malleable types of direct assessments and can be used to score any product or p erformance such as essays, portfolios, skill performances, oral exams, debates, project/product creation, oral presentations or a students body of work over the course of a semester. Since we are talking about assessing official course learning outcomes that are stated in course documents, all faculty teaching that course moldiness agree on a detailed scoring system that delineates criteria used to discriminate among levels and is used for scoring a common assignment, product or performance or set of assignments, products or performances.Information can be obtained from the course documents assignment and evaluation pages to help guide the creation of the rubric. Pros Defines clear expectations. Can be used to score many kinds of assignments or exams Faculty define standards and criteria and how they will be applied Cons Faculty must agree on how to define standards and criteria and how they will be applied 2. parking lot Final Exam or Common Capstone ProjectThese direct assess ment methods integrate knowledge, concepts and skills associated with an entire sequence of study in a course.Either use the same final exam for all sections offered in a course (commercially produced/standardized test or locally developed final exam) or require a culminating final project that is similar (using the same grading rubric to evaluate). Pros Good method to measure growth over time with regard to a course Cumulative The data is more fertile if all students complete the same assessment Provides an additional buffer between student learning performance and an individual instructors teaching performance Cons Focus and breadth of assessment are important Understanding all of the variables to produce assessment results is also important May result in additional course requirements Requires coordination and agreement on standards 3. Embedded Test QuestionsEmbed the same agreed upon questions that relate to the courses student learning outcomes into the final exam for a ll sections of the course and analyze those results and/or engraft the same agreed-upon requirements into the final project/assignment for all sections of the course and analyze those results.Pros Good method to measure growth over time with regards to a course Cumulative The data is more robust if all students complete the same assessment Provides an additional buffer between student learning performance and an individual instructors teaching performance Embedded questions can be reported as an aggregate Cons May result in additional course requirements Requires coordination and agreement on standards If some instructors embed and others do not, the data will be difficult to compare and analyze Separate analysis of imbed set of questions is required VII. REFERENCES https//www. google. com. ph/search? q=ASSESSMENT+TOOLS+PPTrlz=2C1GTPM_enPH0537PH0537aq=foq=assessment+tools+aqs=chrome. 0. 59j57j61j60l2j0. 3437j0sourceid=chromeie=UTF-8 http//www. slideshare. gelt/armovil/ass essment-of-student-learning? from_search=2 Fulks, Janet, Assessing Student Learning in Community Colleges, Bakersfield College, 2004

Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sports Essay Example for Free

Performance Enhancing Drugs in Sports EssayAthletes part performance enhancing drugs to boost their game. The passkeys who use these drugs ar ruining the integrity of the game. Many mint wear offt understand why nonrecreational athletes would go to such extreme measures to be crack when they attain already proven themselves. Athletes be unspoiled victorious a track from their natural ability by utilize these grave drugs. The risk of using performance enhancing drugs is a push-down stack great than the reward, because an athletes reputation could be tarnished and their c beer ruined. Money is one of the major reasons why players use them if they perform at levels higher than what their natural abilities could do they will be offered a large sum of money. Athletes be also putting their presbyopic term health in danger. These drugs have many life-threatening side effectuate that be going unnoticed by the players. Even kids are starting to use performance enhanc ing drugs. Young kids look up to professional athletes and they watch anything they do. Kids want to be just like the pros so they will do exactly what they do to become better and unfortunately that is using drugs.Professional athletes who use performance enhancing drugs are setting bad examples for young athletes trying to fare their conceive ofs. Performance Enhancing Drugs have been available in the United States for a long judgment of conviction, but they have merely been starting to become a topic of discussion in the last fifteen to twenty years. close all of these drugs are manu pointured tabuside of the United States, so that makes them more dangerous to go. Due to the fact that the drugs were not manufactured here they have not been evaluated by the U.S Food and Drug Administration. Some of these substances are naturally occurring, easily available and completely legal, while others are manufactured illegally, or banned by many sporting organizations. One form ca lled HGH is the more or less commonly used substance it increases an athletes muscle mass and performance. Athletes can be suspended for using performance enhancing drugs, but some people think that the organizations are not doing enough to stop players from using them.For example if a player in major league baseball is found to have been using an illegal substance they would end up receiving a fifty game suspension, but they can still come back and play at a time the suspension has been fully served. The punishment should be a lot greater so athletes will not flat think about using them. Professional athletes are paid by how well they perform, so by taking steroids to boost their ability they will receive more money. Its not honorable for the athletes who play the game fairly, because other players will have a competitive advantage over them. every(prenominal) athlete should have an equal opportunity when playing professionally, because if they see other players taking illegal drugs to do better they will start doing the same. Using performance enhancing drugs will just cheat an athlete out of their true talent they will not be respected for what they had accomplished during their careers. For example, there was a professional baseball player named Barry Bonds who took a great risk in using these illegal drugs. He was an pure player throughout his career, but over the years his body had become significantly stronger.He stone-broke numerous homerun records while in the Major Leagues including the most homeruns ever hit during a single career. He was later proven to have been using performance enhancing drugs. This caused him to jeopardize all of his records that most players would have to locomote really hard to get. A couple of years later Barry Bonds was sent to court over this jazz and was later convicted of obstruction of justice. This is just one of many examples on how such a foolish drop off could ruin such a promising life forever. Many world records and Olympic medals have been interpreted back because the athlete used performance enhancing drugs. Another example of an athlete that took performance enhancing drugs is Ben Johnson during the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, Korea. He set a world record in the 100m dash. He ran a 9.79, which at the time was a new world record. A few weeks later his medal was taken away from him, because he tested positive for human growth hormones.Even though this was a great feet in the register of track and field, nobody will be able to say he did it with natural talent and athleticism. He would end up not being able to compete ever again. The senseless decision to take performance enhancing drugs could ruin an athletes wide career. Many High School students have started to use these dangerous drugs this is starting to become a major problem because athletes are just rig themselves and are not becoming better. Professional athletes are setting very bad examples for high school students . Something every student has to deal with no matter if you play a varsity sport or is just a normal student is the pressure to do well and succeed. Some school districts have even been contemplating to add drug testing to high school athletes. This will eventually stop people from cheating to become professional athletes. Students also need to know what they are doing is wrong and could dangerously affect their long term health and could possibly lead to death. One statistic that whitethorn not seem extreme is that 2.3 percentage of all high school students have used some type of performance enhancing drug.This is a dangerous statistic that no one is really addressing. If a young student wants to become pro they need to pee hard and not give in to the temptation of using drugs to boost their athletic abilities. If they were to get caught using these drugs they could be suspended from school and their future and dreams could be ruined by one irresponsible decision. If professional athletes didnt use these terrible drugs less high school students would use them. Its very consequential for professionals to make sure they are setting good examples for young aspiring athletes. Professional athletes are lento starting to raise awareness about this topic and are traveling to schools across the country informing students about the consequences that could perhaps present themselves. The use of performance enhancing drugs greatly affects the idea of the American dream. The American dream is the vision of growing up and being able to do whatever you desire The USA is create on the idea of the meritocracy, and that is the impression that only the best is good enough.Kids have dreams becoming professional and fashioning a lot of money. An athlete who would cheat themselves to touch on these goals is ruining this entire model. If kids start to think it is okeh to cheat in order to achieve lifelong goals they will end up just painful sensation themselves, and will grow up to think that it is ok. Athletes who cheat in order to be successful may think they are living the American dream, but in reality there not. Cheating your way to get to the top is not the skilful thing to do. People who work hard and put in a lot of effort have an unfair disadvantage when it comes to being successful. Using illegal drugs in order to make large amounts of money is not right and unfair. If more people start doing this the concept of living up to these expectations could be tarnished forever. On the other hand athletes who have worked and trained hard their entire life have the right to be proud of themselves for what they had achieved. They can live life knowing that they did things the right way and that is all that matters. When it comes to living up to the American dream one should be happy and feel accomplished of everything they have done.The use of performance enhancing drugs in sports is a growing problem here in the United States. Athletes are takin g away from their natural ability and are cheating themselves. They take these drugs in order to perform better and gain a competitive advantage. If players are caught using these drugs the players integrity could possibly be ruined forever. In todays world it is becoming more and more difficult to get away with drug use in professional sports, the testing is much(prenominal) more advanced and the consequences are even greater. In situations like these the risk is a lot greater than the reward. Athletes need to live up to their true potential and not worry about being better than humanly possible. If an athlete just works hard every day he or she could reach goals that they didnt think they would be able to reach. These dangerous drugs have much more negative effects on ones body than positive ones. Some people may think that athletes are pushed to use these dangerous substances when in reality they are just putting pressure on themselves to be better.Many of the modern day athlete s are not aware of what kind of harm they are doing to their bodies most think that they are making their bodies so strong so they will be able to grapple long term side effects much more easily. This topic should receive a lot more attention that it is receiving, and there should be more programs developed to raise awareness and discuss the dangerous side effects of choosing to participate in athletic events in this matter. It must be difficult for athletes who dont get caught using these drugs to live their life knowing that they not only cheated themselves but the genius of professional sports. These athletes are setting a terrible example for young athletes and are only lovingness about their own careers and not how their actions reflect the entire world. Athletes should end their careers asking one question and that is Do we want to hurt our bodies and ruin the integrity of sports in order to be successful.

The role of agricultural sector as an accelerator for economic growth in Nigeria Essay Example for Free

The business office of unc prohibitedh firmament as an accelerator for sparingal process in Nigeria Essay1.1 BACKGROUND OF test eventory create is a systemic and controlled uptake of surviving organism and the environment in the improvement of human condition. It excessively screens body politic, husbandry, husbandry of plants, animals, and other life courses for aliment, fiber, bio-fuel, and drugs. market-gardening is the acquaintance, art, or occupation interested with cultivating contri just nowe, raising crops, and feeding, breeding, and raising livestock farming (Dictionary.com). It as healthy as is the practice of cultivating and farming animals, provender and other life forms that argon utilise to sustain life. It is a science and was key to the annul of human civilisations as horticulture enabled man to be able to feed himself and produce surpluses (Ask.com). stintingal Growth, define as the emergence capacity of an providence to produce goo ds and services, comp bed from single prohibitedcome of time to a nonher. Economic proceeds so-and-so be measured in nominal experimental conditions, which include inflation, or in true(a) terms, which argon adjusted for inflation. For comparing one economic harvest-time to another, gross interior(prenominal) product or GNP per capita should be used to scram into account universe of discourse difference between countries (Investopedia). The festering of an prudence is thought of, not unaccompanied as an accession in productive capacity except also as an improvement in the quality of life of the people of that economy.The inelegant welkin plays a theatre role in the offer of victuals, security of raw materials for industries, employment, market for industrial goods such as agro-chemical, tractor and fertilizers, and distant substitution within the linguistic context of capital formation. Before oil, Nigeria had oil with oil, she had appendixal opportunity of crops cargon groundnut, cocoa and rubber. These crops were cultivated in fully grown quantities and exported to Europe and America in the pre- sixties and early-60s, (Nigerias founding fathers built the nation from unsophisticated resources yet since the age of the oil microphone boom we take in abandoned all the great opportunities that come with the job of Agriculture). With Military incursions into Nigerian brass and the waitence on petroleum products as the fore most(prenominal) baffled rally earner, the attention to the rustic sphere dwindled. Nigerias groundnut pyramids disappe bed, the oil care plantations vanished and farming went back to the subsistent level. With an increasing population, it became increasingly toilsome to feed the masses, and the terra firma resorted to importing food to supplement the ones grown at home.The pastoral welkin has contend a crucial role in the social and economic maturation and using of Nigeria however, its full prob able has not been r distributivelyed. In the last twain decades, g everywherenance has paid very little attention to the increment of the uncouth sector, though in that respect has been falsify magnitude farm output at great cost with major projects, massive investments in inelegant infrastructure and the introduction of modern seed varieties and chemicals. The boorish sector is yet to boast of any contribution whereas more or less 75% of export earnings in the seventies were from husbandry. Agriculture as a major sector of the Nigerian economy chiffonier provide up to 70% of the population with employment. The sector in novel times is creation trans make by commercialisation at the small, medium and large-scale enterprise levels. Major crops include beans, sesame, cashew nuts, cassava, cocoa beans, groundnuts, gum Arabic, kolanut, lemon yellow (corn), melon, millet, palm kernel, palm oil, plantains, rice, rubber, sorghum, soyabeans, and yam in the area of pull down cultivation, and Fish Farming, Piggery and Poultry in the area of animal husbandry, but this is yet to assure the record of food security and enough external swap earnings desired.Wikipedia recorded that in 1990, 82 million hectares out of Nigerias congeries unload area of about 91million hectares were found to be arable, although only if 42% of cultivatable area was farmed leaving us with unused arable land of about 58%. In 2013, the sylvan Transformation Agenda (ATA) was introduced by the federal official Ministry of Agriculture. The Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) has a great possible in enhancing the role of land as an engine of inclusive gain leading to clownish employment, Wealth creation, and variegation of the economy. A major polity accomplishment in the sector is the liberation of seed and fertilizer preparation, which had until nowadays been controlled by the national establishment, undermined the mysterious sector and did not deliver the i nputs to genuine farmers. Since September 2011, fertilizers and seeds are being sold by the companies directly to farmers. Lending commitments from commercial banks has been leveraged using guarantees issued by the Ministry of Finance. In order to provide a efficacious modelling for the establishment and perpetuity of staple crop processing zones, and transform the Nigerian verdant sector with substantial multiplier effects on the entire economy, an Act to provide a legal frame flex for the establishment ofStaple Crop Processing Zones (SCPZ) is genuinely being drafted prepared to the res human raceaal Assembly for adoption.Agriculture has a stronghold in any economy, for without it, a solid ground allow always beget to depend on foreign countries to feed her population at that placeby exposing herself to the issues of food security. Moreover, the proceeds in the coarse sector could be a catalyst for national output done its effect on arcadian incomes and grooming of r esources for transformation into the industrialized economy. thitherfore it is clear that rustic fruit has vie a historically substantial role in the process of economic development as evidence from industrialized countries corresponding china and India. Countries that are just rapidly developing today have also indicated that the sector has been the engine that contributes to the growth of the overall economy like China. 1.2STATEMENT OF PROBLEMAgriculture is the single largest contributor to the tumefy-being of the unsophisticated short in Nigeria, sustaining about 86% of arcadian household in the country. Improved uncouth development and growth, can offer a pathway out of poverty. however until very recently, kitchen-gardening has suffered the effect of some(prenominal) decades of fell. Nigerias farming(a) policies have been inconsistent, un organized and ad hoc. After very slow growth during the seventies and 1980s, artless growth began to pick during the 1990s a nd, since 2000, has averaged 5.6 per annum. However, even with the rapid culture growth of the past decade, Nigeria ease has one of the highest poverty rates in the valet de chambre. A paradigm skid towards a sound evidence- ascendantd policymaking process is postulate to promote more equitable, gender sensitive and environmentally sustainable growth in the bucolic sector. The recent food equipment casualty surge has make this hammock even more historic.It is clear that Nigeria has an arable land of about 82 million hectares and only 48% has been farmed. It is also clear that the sylvan sector is sustaining about 86% of the agrestic household in the country. There has also been a privation of coordination of floriculture policies. The fence Nigeria relieve has one of the highest ratings of poverty in the world. This search work is targeted at reconciling the opportunity congenital in the Nigerias poor/rural population vis--vis the massive uncultivated arable land done small scale agricultural support from the organization. It will further re-echoexisting solutions as tumesce as provide additional information on our challenges in agriculture as a nation, with a view to providing thought provoking and inciteful analysis of the opportunities inherent in an agricultural based economy, particularly for a blessed nation like Nigeria with quality arable land, and enough water resources to support animal husbandry. 1.3OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYThe main objective of this research work is to study the roles of agricultural sector as an accelerator for the economic growth in Nigeria. Specific objectivesThe study is aimed at1. Assessing the various policies and syllabuss used in promoting the agricultural sector in Nigeria, failures and successes. 2. Evaluating the performance of the agricultural sector of Nigeria over the geezerhood, that is1980-2012 and the way forward. 3. Making suggestions as to how the full potential of the sector could be accomp lished in line with the favored policies and other developments. 1.4RESEARCH QUESTIONSThis study seeks to find answers to the sideline research questions 1. What are the roles of the agricultural sector in relations to the growth of the Nigerian economy? 2. What efforts has the government made to restore the agricultural sector in Nigeria? 3. What is the performance of the agricultural sector of Nigeria over the years? 4. What could be done to make the agricultural sector achieve its full potential?1.5RESEARCH HYPOTHESISThe research hypothesis is to create a relationship between the growth on agricultural sector and the Nigerian economy as well as the inverse relationship between them. = Growthof the agricultural sector playsno significant roles in the economy. = Growthof the agricultural sector plays significant roles in the economy. 1.6SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDYThe significance of this study depends on the fact that with an improved economy, Nigeria cubicles to bring in its ef fects towards economic growth. It is payoffous to both the government and citizens in the esthesis that itsserves as a guide for future governmental policy on agriculture and when this is well implemented, we will notice that the welfare and standards of living of the citizens will be improved. 1.7THE SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDYThis study examines the timeframe of 1980-2012. The point of choosing this period is to confirmablely test the significance or the extent to which the agricultural sector contributes to the economys growth scorn the several years of governments neglect, and to re-emphasize the need to properly coordinate Government policies and reconcile the opportunity of our rural population with the available innate resources, particularly the arable land for optimum usage and the re modernal effects towards stabilizing the agricultural sector. The performance of Nigerias agricultural sector shall be quantifyd in detail as well as efforts of the government at restoring the sector examined. This study will also go further to discuss the major constraints on the performance of the Nigeria agricultural sector. The limitations are due to lack of available data information, time broker, and cost involved in carrying out this character of research. 1.8DEFINITION OF TERMS.i. Capital Formation this can be defined as the transfer of nest egg from individuals or households to the business sector, directly through investment or confirmatively through banks. ii. Husbandry this is defined as the science of raising crops or food animals or the cultivation and fruit of edible crops or of animals for food. iii. Labour-Intensive is a process or industry that requires large amount of advertize to produce its goods and services. iv. Global Warming an attach in earths average atmospheric temperature that causes corresponding changes in climate and that may depart from the greenhouse effect. v. Greenhouse Effect an atmospheric heating phenomenon, ca used by short wave solar light beam being readily transmitted inward through the earths atmosphere but agelong wave length heat radiation less readily transmitted outwards, owing its absorption by atmospheric carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, and other gases then the rising level of carbon dioxide is viewed with concern.CHAPTER TWO2.1 unveilingThis section presents the theoretical, methodological and empirical review of literature. The theoretical review covers various theories on the subject matter, objet dart the methodological review also cover various methodological issues used in the past studies and the empirical review present various findings that leave alones from the methodologies. 2.2THEORETICAL polish OF LIT sequenceTUREThe study of economic history provides us with wide evidence that an agricultural revolution is a fundamental pre-condition for economic development (Eicher and Witt, 1964, Olusanmi, 1966, Jones and Wolff, 1969). The agricultural sector has t he potentials to be the industrial and economic spring board from which a countrys development can take off. Indeed, agricultural activities are usually concentrated in the less real rural transformation, redistribution, poverty backup and socio-economic development (Stewart, 2000). Agriculture can be advanced beyond its primary sour of offering food and its primary cultural sector has the potential to shape the landscape, guarantee the sustainable management of renewable resources of many a(prenominal) rural areas (Humbert, 2000). In fact, through its different spheres of activities at macro and micro levels, the agricultural sector is strategically positioned to have a higher multiplier effect on any nations quest for socio-economic and industrial development. It is very obvious that a sustainable agricultural growth has been highly instrumental in Brazils rapid rural transformation, the em postment of Brazilian peasant and the alleviation of abject poverty. Interestingly, th e Nigerian economy like that of Brazil during the first decade after independence could reasonably be set forth as an agricultural economy because agriculture serves as the engine of growth of the overall economy (Ogen, 2003 231-234). From the stand point of occupational distribution and contribution of gross domestic product, agriculture was the leading sector.During this period, Nigeria was the worlds second largest maker of cocoa, largest exporter of palm kernel and largest producer and exporter of palm oil. Nigeria was also a leading exporter of other commodities such as cotton, groundnut, rubber and hides and skin (Alkali 1977 15-16). The agricultural sector contributed over 60% to the GDP in the sixties and despite the reliance of the Nigerian peasantfarmers on traditional tools and indigenous farming method, the farmers produce 70% of Nigerias export and 95% of its food needs (Lawal 1997 195). However, the agricultural sector suffered neglect during the hay days of boom in the 1970s. Ever since then, Nigeria has been witnessing extreme poverty. Historically, the root of the crisis in Nigerian economy lies in the neglect of agriculture and the outgrowthd dependence on a monoculture economy based on oil. The agricultural sector now accounts for less than 5% of Nigerias GDP (Olagboju and Falola 1996 263). It is against this back drop that this paper sets out to draw comparative analysis from the Brazilian generate for possible replication in Nigeria. Such an approach is particularly operable given the fact that Nigeria shares so much in common with Brazil in terms of a highly conducive agricultural climate, huge and diverse population as well as the accessibility of natural resources. 2.2.1MEANING OF ECONOMIC GROWTHAccording to Turrets (1987) the economic growth of a country can be defined in various ways as an accession in gross domestic product, in real GDP or in per capital GDP. It is clear therefore, that the rate of growth of the real GDP co untry. If we want to determine the growth in Nigeria for example, the rate of growth of its real GDP stands as the most appropriate measure. Alternatively, we can also examine the meaning of economic growth through the use of labor possibility curve. A return possibility curve is used to depict the maximum quantities of two goods or types of goods that can be produced when all the resources of the country are fully and efficiently utilized. However, smith (1996) visualised that economic growth results from fussyization of labour, application of new technology as well as through international trade. But one important fact to note is that, since economic activities tend to or shift outward, countries will always record a positive growth rate and sometimes negative, such as inward of countrys production possibility curve (PPC) (Clawer, Graves and Sexton, 1989).Nigerias economy had in some ears of the late1980s and through 1990s recorded some negative growth rate and in fact, still does till date and even beyond. 2.2.2AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC GROWTH emergence economists in widely distributed and agricultural economists in particular,have focused on how agriculture can best contribute to overall economic growth and modernization. Many early analyst (Fel and Rani, 1954 Jorgensen 1961 Hirschman 1958 Scitovsky 1954 Lewis 1954 Rosentein-rodan 1943), have highlighted agriculture because of its abundance of resources and its ability to transfer surpluses to the more important industrial sector. The conventional approach to the roles of agriculture in economic growth concentrated on agricultures important market-mediated linkages, and they are i. Providing food for the expanding population with higher income. ii. Providing labour for an urbanized industrial work force. iii. Supplying savings for investment in industry.iv. Enlarging markets for industrial output providing export earnings to pay for trade capital goods and v. Providing primary material for agro proce ssing industries (Timer 2002, Delgado et al 1994, Ravis et al 1990, Johnson and Mellor 1961). Rapid agricultural productivity growth is a prerequisite for the market mediated linkages to be mutually beneficial. Productivity growth that resulted from agriculture has had wondrous continues on food supplies and food prices and consequent beneficial impacts on food security and poverty diminution (Hazel and Hag blade 1993, Binswanger 1980, Hayami and Herdt 1977, Pinstrup Anderson 1976) Alston et al (1996), posit that because a congenatorly high proportion of any income gain made by the poor is spent on food, the income effect of research induced picture shift can have major multinational implications, particularly if those shift results from technologies aimed at the poorest producers. Agricultural productivity growth also triggers the generation of non-market mediated linkages between the agricultural sector and the rest of the economy.These includes the indirect contribution of a vibrant agricultural sector to food security and poverty alleviation, safely gelt and buffer role and the supply of environmental services (FAO, 2004). While agricultures direct private contributions to form households are tangible, easy indirect benefits tend to be over looked in assessing rate of returns. Ignoring the whole range of economic and social contributions of agriculture underestimates the returns to investments in the sector (Valdes and Foster, 2005). Some empirical evidence exists on the positive relationship between agricultural growth (Valdes and Foster 2005). The transformation of agriculture from itstraditional subsistence roots induced by technical change, to a modernizing agricultural sector is a phenomenon observed across the developing world. Concluding, it is clear that agricultural growth has played a historically important role in the process of economic development. Evidence from industrialized countries that are rapidly developing today indicates that ag riculture was the engine that contributed to growth in the non-agricultural sectors and to overall economic wellbeing. Economic growth originating in agriculture can have a particular strong impact in reducing poverty and hunger. Increasing employment and income in agriculture stimulates demand for non-agricultural goods and services, thereby providing a hike to non-farm rural income earners as well. 2.2.3AGRICULTURE AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.The contribution of agriculture to economic development lies in i. Providing more food to the rapidly expanding population increasing the demand for industrial product, and thus necessitating the intricacy of secondary and tertiary sectors. ii. It can release workers needed for the production of non-agricultural goods and services. iii. It can provide a source of capital that can be invested in improved productive facilities in the rest of the economy (Timer 2002, Delgado et al 1994, Ravis et al 1996. Johnson and Mellor 1961). A forward-looki ng urban industrial economy contributes, in turn, to the rapid development of agriculture by expanding the market for agricultural products by supplying the farm machinery, chemical fertilizers and so on, that raise the level of agricultural technology by expanding productive employment opportunities for workers released from agriculture by technological change and by making possible improvements in the quality of rural life by raising standards of consumption both in urban and rural areas (Binswanger, 1980). A rise in rural purchasing author, as a result of the increased agricultural surplus, is a great stimulus to industrial development. The market for manufacture goods is very small in an underdeveloped country where the peasant farm labourers and their families, comprising typically two goods in addition to whatever they need.There is lack of real purchasing power thus reflecting the low productivity in agriculture. The staple fiber riddle thus is low investment return cause d by small size of the market. Increased ruralpurchasing power caused by expansion of agricultural output and productivity will tend to raise the demand for manufactured goods and extend the size of the market. This will lead to the expansion of the industrial sector (Lewis, 1954). Moreover, the demand for such inputs as fertilizers, tractors, break off tools, implements, irrigational facilities in the agricultural sectors will all lead to the greater expansions of the agricultural sector. Besides, the means of carry and communications will expand to urban areas and manufactured goods to the rural areas. The long run effects of the expansion of the secondary and tertiary sectors will be towards higher profits in them whether they are operated in the private or the public sector. These profits will tend to increase the rate of capital formation through their re-investment. That is what Kuznets calls the market contributions of agriculture when it trades with other sectors of the ec onomy. Underdeveloped countries mostly specialize in the production of a fewer agricultural goods for export.As output and productivity of the exportable goods expand, their exports increase and results in larger foreign exchange earnings. therefrom agricultural surplus leads to capital formation when capital goods are trade with this foreign exchange. As development gains momentum due to industrialization, the proportion of agricultural export in the countrys enumerate exports is likely to fall as they are needed in large quantities for domestic production of imported articles. Such articles are import substitutes and conserve foreign exchange. Similarly, increased marketed surplus of food grains leads to a net saving of foreign exchange, as the economy tries to achieve the goal of self-sufficiency in food production. large productions of food and export crops do not only conserve and earn foreign exchange, but also leads to expansion of the other sectors of the economy. Forei gn exchange earnings can be used to build capacity of other industries and help the establishment of new industries by importing scare raw materials, machines, capital equipment and technical know-how. Kuznets calls it the product contribution of agriculture which first argues about the growth of net output of the economy and the growth of per capita output. An underdeveloped needs large amounts of capital to finance expansion of the infrastructure and for the development of basic and reasoned industries. In the early stages of development, capital can be provided by increasing the marketable surplus from the rural sector without reducingconsumption levels from population.According to Johnson and Mellor (1961) an increase in agricultural productivity implies some gang of capital formation when it is trim down on the farm and employed in construction works. But the possibility of utilizing unskilled surplus form labour on capital project requiring skilled labour is bound. The se cond possibility of increasing capital formation through reduced agricultural prices is also not feasible in the early stages of development when the rise in price is not feasible. Reduction in agricultural prices is not feasible. Reduction in agricultural prices is possible in the long run but democratic countries may not be able to follow this reasoning for political reasons. A more practicable solution is to stabilize the prices in farm products. The third possibility of increasing farm taxation is perhaps the best way for capital formation. This can be done by mobilizing increased farm incomes through agricultural income tax, land registration charges, take aim fees, for providing agricultural technical services and other types of fees that cover all or part of the farm population. But political and institutional problems makes it difficult to translate the increased potential for saving and capital accumulation, made possible by increased agricultural productivity, into an ac tual increase in investment in underdeveloped countries. According to Wald, special assessments have had their widest application in the join States.In view of the fact that they are specially designed for financing such developed projects as irrigation works, flood control system and certain classes of roads, all of which are extremely important for underdeveloped countries like India that the penalties of too light taxation on agriculture are a stagnating farm sector, a financially starved public sector and a retarded rate of economic growth in the country as a whole (Wald, 1995). Thus countries were agriculture dominates, the taxation of agriculture in one form or another is essential for mobilizing agricultural surplus in order to accelerate economic development. Kuznets calls it the factor of contribution when there is a transfer of resources to the other sectors, these resources to the other sectors, these resources being productive factors. Agriculture also expands and diver sifies employment opportunities in rural areas. As agricultures productivity and farm income increases, non-farm rural employment expands and diversifies.Landless and borderline farmers are primarily industrious innon-agricultural pursuits which includes the manufacturers of textile, furniture, tools, handicraft, leather and metal processing, marketing, transport, repair work, construction of houses and other buildings, education, medication and other services, as these activities satisfy local demand. Lastly, increase in rural incomes as a result of the agricultural surplus tends to improve rural welfare. Peasant starts consuming more food curiously of a higher nutritional value in the form of superior quality cereals, eggs, ghee, milk, fruits and so forth They build burst houses fitted with modern amenities like electricity, furniture, radio, fan etc. provide themselves with bicycles, motorcycles, watches, readymade garments, shoe etc. they also witness direct satisfaction f rom such services such as schools, health centres, irrigation, banking, transport and communication facilities. Thus increased agricultural surplus has the effect of raising the standards of living of the mass of rural people.2.2.4NIGERIAN ECONOMIC surroundingsNigeria was and is still basically an agricultural country despite the fact that there is significant growth in the other sector of the economy since her independence in 1960. Agriculture remains the single largest sector of the economy since it provides employment to a large segment of the work force and constituting the main stay of Nigerias rural population. Since 1985, the per centumage of gross domestic product attributable to agriculture has been maintained about 31%, well ahead of mining and quarrying, which includes crude petroleum and gas as well as whole deal and retail trade, which are also the other two major contributors to GDP in Nigeria. Before 1970, the agricultural sector has enjoyed a relatively abundant s upply of farm labour and cultivable land for agriculture was able to respond quite steadily to a rising demand. An expansion of land under cultivation and increased absorption of rural labour constituted a ready means for output expansion. However, the 1970s oil boom saw a high rate of rural-urban population migrating, which resulted into supply demand unstableness in the food subsector, while traditional export turn downd sharply in both absolute and relative terms.From 1970, Nigerias agriculture has been characterized by excess demand over supply due to high population growth rate, stagnant declining economic growth, high rate of globalization, increased demand foragricultural raw materials by an expanding industrial sector and the rising per capita income which is stimulated by an oil export revenue boom. The decline in production of tradable has raised serious domestic and orthogonal balancing problems. The output of domestic inputs using agro-allied firms is restrain by out put fluctuation, which reduces the size of export revenues and market shares. This adversely affects the balance of payment. The agricultural sector was estimated to decline at an annual average of 0.43% between 1970 and 1985 while the periods between 1975 and 1978 recorded the highest level of decline of 7.88%. The agricultural export crop sub-sectors contribution to the total foreign earnings declined from an average of 58% in the sixties to only 5.2% between 1971 and 1985. Indeed, by 1980, Nigeria had become a net importer of food and most of its tradable export crops had any disappeared from the export list or merely maintained an insignificant presence. As it were, the agricultural export sub-sector became increasingly unable to meet the raw material needs to the primarily processing industries and furthermore, inflationary pressure characterized the economy, general degeneration of rural life and rural urban migration.Notwithstanding, the observed agricultural decline, agric ultural policy appeared to have been more active in the 1970s than in the 1960s. In the formal period, the government implanted successful programme like National Agricultural Food Production Programme (NAFP), Operation Feed the Nation (OFN) and green revolution programme, also banks assisted Agricultural Development Programme (ADP). Government also well-tried to improve marketing system for agricultural export crops by reforming the marketing board system in 1973, 1976 and 1977. Agricultural sector did not improve as a result there was introduction of geomorphological Adjustment Programme ( tucker) in 1986, which necessitated the deregulating of exchange rates and abolition of marketing board system. 2.2.5AGRICULTURAL yield DURING THE STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT PROGRAMME (SAP) One of the most important debates the morphologic fitting programme (SAP) has centred on the impact of the programme on agricultural sector. It was anticipated that the measures adopted under this programme w ill bring about increased domestic production of food and eventual elimination of food import, increase supply of manufacturing industries of agricultural raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, oil palm, rubber etc. was also anticipated (Obadan and Egbase, 1992).Also, thevariegation of export base of the economy would be enhanced with the increase in the agricultural prices and boom in the sector, production was expected to translate into rising rural employment, income and standard of living. Therefore, the agricultural production will be viewed from two perspectives, which is agricultural food production during SAP and agricultural export during SAP. 2.2.6AGRICULTURAL FOOD PRODUCTION DURING SAPFollowing the introduction of SAP in 1986, some writers have claimed that food production have been on the increasing sides. Since one of the expectations of complimenting this programme is to bring food and to make sure that the importation of food is eradicated. Iwayemi in 1994 found out tha t one of the positive developments in recent years is a merging disregard of upward turn in the production of agricultural tradable (rice, soya beans and maize) and of the non-traded food category and cassava has performed impressively. Furthermore, it was observe that immediately after the introduction of SAP, there were sharp increase in the prices of staples such as yam, cassava, rice, maize, etc. for instance the average market retail price in Kwara sound out rosaceous from 450 per triiodothyronine to 560 per tonne in 1986 and 686 per tonne in 1986. Also, the average market price of rice in Kaduna state flush from 1500 in 1985 to 1700 and 2213 in 1992.These increases in the price of staples are adduced to high inflationary pressures resulting from SAP. Also Edgbai (1988)argued that the devaluation of the Naira following the approaching of the SAP lead to spectacular increase in the prices of most agricultural inputs, implements and machinery. The percentage price increase of these inputs between 1985, the last pre-SAP years ranges between 50% and 70% using official prices afterwards there have indeed been increases in the producer prices of maize development. Finally, Iwayemi (1994) concluded that the most pressing problem in the sector is the lack of adequate production capacity to meet domestic food exigency of rapidly raising large population. 2.2.7AGRICULTURAL EXPORT DURING SAPThe major aim of introducing SAP was to improve the agricultural export through the dispraise of the countrys currency. However, different researches hold different opinions concerning this. For instance, Obadan (1993) found out that SAP policy of exchange rate adjustment was animportant factor that positively affected supply of rubber and suggested that real depreciation of the naira for example, tends to stimulate rubber farmers to increase supply of export, thus talking advantage of the improved international competitiveness. In modern development, with the exception of rubber, the export elasticity of cocoa, palm kernel and polished or semi processed product with respect to change in exchange in Nigeria was principally of low order even in the long run. Hence, Obadan and Egbase (1992) concluded that export base production activities specially agriculture, have benefited from the SAP incentive arising particularly from naira to depreciation and trade liberalization. Thus, quantity of natural rubber exported rose from 32000 in 1985 to 108600 in 1991, changes in naira exchange rate importantly affected natural rubber supply under SAP.In contrast, Ajilim and Agba, (1986) claimed that there is over whelming evidence that SAP has very slim prospect for excite non-oil export e.g. cocoa. Also Dayo, (1996) discovered that the low elasticity estimate was due to limited volume of agricultural export earning in response to devaluation of the naira. Also, Ajayi (1988) and Osagie (1985) posit In that in Nigeria, exchange rate devaluation is stagnant and have no significant effect on the external trade balance because of low prices elasticity by and large associated with the excess import and export demand functions. In other words Balogun (1987) estimated agricultural export function with exchange export has the redress and the result showed unresponsiveness of aggregate agricultural export to exchange rate, price and imported and agricultural input. He thus, concluded that the agricultural sector, which is dominated by smaller hold farming, is insulated from external trade variables or shocks. Finally, Obadan and Egbase (1992) argued that export base production activity, especially agriculture, have benefited from SAP incentives arising particularly from naira depreciation and trade liberalization, for example in response to the price and exchange liberalization, the quantity of natural exported rose from 32000tonnes in 1985 to 33000 in 1986 and 108800 in 1991 changes in naira exchange rate significantly affected natural rubber supply under SAP.However Obadan (1993) argued that the main objective of SAP has not been realized even though that the second of agricultural export have increase, the value is still in significant. 2.2.8THE EFFECT OF SAP AND THE AGRICULTURAL vault of heaven AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT. Warder (1995) analysedthe economic and political development on Nigerias agricultural sector including the application of the structural adjustment programme (SAP). He discovered that with the application of SAP, that the country was able to orient her agricultural production toward the production and exportation of cash crops while Husia and Farugee (1994) found out that for any developing country like Nigeria to experience the turn-around in our country, the country should establish and maintain macro-economic stability, eliminate discrimination against agriculture and take measures to crawfish out anti export bias. Furthermore, Obadan (1994) give tongue to that the agricultural sector during SAP was able to reverse negative growth of the economy during the early 1980s, because of more favourable more weather conditions and adoption of a floating exchange rate system which favoured agriculture deregulation of agricultural prices and the priority according to the implementation of the key public sector agricultural programs.Stanley (1987) added that SAP policy consisted of measures that are aim at achieving viability in the medium term balance of payment why the level and rate of growth of economy activity was maintained at the optimal level of operation. In addition Ojo (1988) stated that the effect of SAP on agricultural and rural development has brought about an increase in agricultural production and there was an improvement in rural development.He however, noted that the fundamental problems of Nigeria agriculture still persist. In contrast, since the theoretical bases of SAP is based on the lightless hand or market mechanism, Obadan and Ekuarhare (1993) opined that a Pareto system which required a free market economy may not be idea for a developing or even a developed country. This is because the market mechanism may faster aptitude but not equity. The price mechanism which is concerned with state resources allocation undermines economic growth and development in developing countries. consequently, without governments intervention in economic activities, the market leads to misallocation of present and future resource or at least to one which may not be in long run in the best interests of the society (Torado 1977, 164 quoted in Obadan and Ekuarhare 1993).Finally, Obadan and Ekuarhare opined further that the fiscal monetary exchange policy mix contained in SAP is inter-consistent with economic recovery from a corner (from which the country has been battling due to external shock and the crisis of accumulation within the domestic bourgeoisie). Recoveryfrom this cyclical downswing characterized by below capacity nation production would require an increase in government use of goods and services to provide greater employment and increased social benefit. In other words, the deflation an economy coupled with deregulation and liberalization will not lead to an upturn of the economy. Therefore,Obadan (1993) discovered that the main objective of SAP has not been realized even though the number of non-oil manufactured agricultural export items have increased the value and is still insignificant. For instance, exchange in-flow from non-oil exports reduce from $557million in 1985(per SAP) to $538 million in 1987. It increased to $613 million in 1988 but reduced drastically to $406million in 1990 and by 1992 the sector only contributed 3.6% of the nations foreign exchange.The value of agricultural export which stood at an average of 408.7 million forwards declining sharply to 270.8 million in 1981-1985, owing for the most part to decline in cash crop producers. During SAP, export earnings grew to 1822.9 million in 1986-1990 for primary agricultural commodities such as tubers, fruits and spices coming on board. In addition, export of manufacturers and semi manufacturers of agricultural products which earned only 37.2 million in 1891-1985 recorded the sum of 214.9 million in 1986-1990 as Nigeria became exporter of textile, soap, detergent, beer, beverages and skin in addition to cocoa products. Emmanuel (2002) viewed productivity as the riches of a nation. According to him, Nigeria is generously endowed with abundant natural resources. He further argued that if this enormous resources base is well managed, through increased productivity, the wealth of the nation is limit to increase. He argued that a farmer plants a seed and reaps several harvesting period, productivity has increased and the wealth of a nation has increased too. The mercantilists (18th century) argued that productivity in the agricultural sector contributed the least to the economic growth. They say that it only promoted domestic trade a nd did not fore see mechanization and modernization that took over manual labour in the agricultural sector, as agricultural commodities are not only traded domestically but exported to other countries. 2.2.9AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND EXPORTThe breakdown of agricultural production into its component parts reveals the problems during 1985 period. While food production recorded only a marginalincrease export crop production declined sharply. The short domestic food production is reflected in Nigerias massive food imports, especially in the 1970s to argument domestic supply. The supply in the production of some of Nigerias cultural export commodities was most worrisome for instance, Nigeria that was ranked as the world leading producer and exporter of palm oil in the 1960s had become the net importer of this commodity in the mid-70s. Similarly, Nigerias cocoa production, which r all(prenominal)ed its peak of 309000 tonnes in 1970-71, fell drastically to 160000 tonnes in 1985. The s harp turn down in the gross value terms of trade in agriculture was equally serious. The ratio of agricultural exports to food imports which stood at 143% in 1970-1975 suffered significant deterioration and reached the net at 38% by 1976-1982. The performance of agriculture during the review period was underdetermined in general by its neglect coupled with a chain of distributive created by the oil boom. 2.3THE METHODOLOGICAL REVIEW OF LIT periodTURE some(prenominal) policies as well as policy instruments have been put to place over the year by successive government in Nigeria. Some had positive effect while the others had negative effects. Olayami (1985) identified trinity distinct agricultural policy era under which the agricultural sector developed for the past terce decades, these includes the 1960-1969 era, the 1970-1985 eras. These policies were targeted at improving the performance of the sector during this period. A review of these policies would be discussed Agricultura l policy during these periods was limited to marketing and pricing for which the marketing board was established. Actually, at the outbreak of World War 2 in 1939, government owned marketing boards were setup in British, West Africa to assure orderly marketing and to cling to British supplies of raw materials (Adegbola and Akinbode, 1986). Government was involved in agricultural research and extension of services but the issue of self-sufficiency in agriculture for food and raw materials was not pursued. Also investment in agriculture with opening moves to improve employment was left to the initiative in farming. During this period, there was decentralised approach to agriculture with initiatives being left to the regions and the states while the federal government played a supportive role. Regional government were executing abhor policies, programme andprojects. There was no institutional federal responsibility for agriculture and there were no specific agricultural sector objecti ves. There were a number of policies and programme and some of them are discussed below 2.3.1AGRICULTURAL MARKETING POLICYThe agricultural marketing board system was used extensively in marketing agricultural products during this period. The system started with the establishment of a commodity marketing board in 1947 and for groundnut, palm produce and cotton in 1949. In 1954, the board became regionalized with one multi commodity marketing board for each of the regions, and later for each of the states. The board accumulated huge trading surpluses which were used to mobilize substantial savings for the government. These surpluses were generated at the expense of the stability of farmers income. The farmers income was kept low and with increasing risk on the farm declining world commodity prices of the mid 60s, there was an incentive for peasant increase production (Adubi, 1966). 2.3.2AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION PROJECTSThe regional government of the east and western Nigeri a stared this project and then later the north, to encourage the development of these crops. There financed from surpluses of the marketing boards. This was before the creation state, the UNIX oil palm plantation (now in Rivers and Cross Rivers), the Hushin rubber estates (now in Ogun state), and the upper Ogun cattle ranches etc. 2.3.3FARM SETTLEMENT SCHEMEIn the early 1960s the regional government assisted school leavers who were willing to go into agriculture establishment farm settlement scheme in places like Edo, Ilora, Ikenne, Ibadan and so on. The farm settlement were setup as model for other farmers who often look up practises being carried out by settlers and had easy access to farm equipment and services. However, due to non-ownership pattern of the scheme, farm and house power supply problems and the limited individuals holdings, most settlers were not committed. The owned land outside the greater settlement and mainly used the opportunity to obtain services through memb ership of a settlement scheme (Adegbola and Akinbode, 1986) 2.3.41970-1985 ERA (PERIOD OF MAXIMUMGOVERNMENT INTERVENSION) Agricultural production started to decline towards the end of the decades of 1960s. Export crops outputs were stagnating while export volumes cast down to decrease, and there was evidence of food shortages in the country. The 1963 GDP figures for example shows that agriculture crops, livestock, fishing and forestry accounted for 64% of total GDP and the average for 1960s decade estimated at 56%. Similarly, in the export sector, the percentage of agricultural produce was declining (Adubi, 1966).The problem of agricultural production decline was ascribed partly to the civil war and partly to the declining commodity process in the world market and the incentive to production due to taxation of the commodity board. There was therefore greater involvement of the government in agriculture. The expenditure of government and therefore for its investment increase in the sector specific sector emphasis of policy was on accelerating production of the staple food crops and some export crops. There was a fundamental shift in the strategy compared with the decade of 1960s and the federal government became more involved in the sector.The strategy taken, led to the launching of several special programme and projects. Also specialised in institutions were setup to ensure smooth implementation of the agricultural policies the period witnessed many macroeconomic and sector specific policies, which directly or indirectly affects agricultural production. Many of the macroeconomic policies of the government had wide spread effect on agriculture, though not targeted at the agricultural sector, until there are some programme which includes marketing policy, input supply and distribution policy and input gift policy. Agricultural Development sees (ADPs) and River Basin Development Authority (RBDA) were also established to promote agricultural developments. 2.3.5 THE 1985-1999 ERA (SAP AND POST SAP PERIOD)With the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in 1986, government admitted the failure of past policies to significantly improve the economy and reverse the declining trend of production in the agricultural sector. The SAP relied most especially on the agricultural sector to achieve the objectives of its far reaching refunds on diversification of export and adjustment of the consumption structure of the economy. The philosophy of SAP for the agricultural sector was that only the interplay of the marketforces could foster efficiency in the sector. The government was therefore expected to play minimal role for private sector initiative in the sector. Many of the policy measure adopted in SAP and macro in nature and those that affect agriculture also fall directly into fiscal, monetary, trade and exchange rate policies as well as institutional policy refunds. Many institutions such as National board of directors of Employment (NDE), Directora te of Food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), National Agricultural Insurance Company (NAIC), National Land Development Authority (NALDA) were established to assist new farmers and promote agriculture development in the rural areas. Essentially, these policies and programme were implemented until 1999. The changes in the government during the review period 1985-1999 also led to modifications of some of the policies above, which essentially formed the major focus of government on agricultural development. 2.3.6THE NEW MILLENNIUM AGRICULTURAL POLICIES (1999-2003)At the root of the new democratic administration in May 1999 and shortly before then, several institutional changes were made in order to realize the sectors objectives and in line with its belief that agricultural and rural development are sine que non for improved economy recovery (Olamola, 2003) these includes the relocation of department of cooperatives. Division of the ministry of wet Resources to the ministry of agriculture all before 1999, the scrapping of the erst while National Agricultural Land Development Department, the scrapping of the Federal Agriculture Coordinating Unit (FACU) and the Agricultural Project Monitoring and Evaluating Unit (APMEU) and the setting up of Project Co-ordination Unit (PCU) and the stream lining institution for agricultural credit delivery with the emergency of the Nigerian Agricultural Co-operative and Rural Development Bank (NACRDB) and the peoples bank and the asset of the Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP). New institutions are also evolving to enable the Nigerian agricultural sectors respond to the imperative of the emerging global economic order. The new agricultural policy has a clear statement of objectives amid the structural transformation necessary for the overall socio-economic development of the country as well as the improvement in the quality of life of Nigeria.This objective reflects the current policy recognition of agriculture as a vital sector under the poverty diminutionprogramme (FMARD, 2003). The government also seeks to pursue the following specific objectives i. Attainment of self-sufficiency in basic food commodities with particular reference to those which consume considerable shares of Nigerians foreign exchange and for which the country has comparative advantage in local production. ii. Increase in production and processing of exportable commodities with a view to increase their foreign exchange earning capacity and further diversifying the countrys export base and source of foreign exchange earnings. iii. Increase in production of agricultural raw materials to meet the growth of an expanding industrial sector. iv. Modernization of agricultural production, processing, storage and distribution through the infusion of improved technologies and management so that agriculture can be more responsive to the demands of other sectors of the Nigerian economy. v. Creation of more agricultural and rural emp loyment opportunities to increase income of farmers and rural dwellers, productivity absorbed and increasing labour force in the nation.These objectives are properly in agreement with the whole concept of agricultural sustainability and inter-linkage between agriculture and each of the relevant sectors of the economy. As it is usual with the specification of agricultural policy objectives from time immemorial, these objectives are clearly presented and are basically consistent with the overall strategy of diversifying the productive base of the economy for an increased foreign exchange generation, higher level of employment and productivity and improved economy recovery. Specification of policy objectives had been the most considerably accomplished component of agricultural policy formulation in particular and development planning experience in the country in general. It is therefore not surprising that the specified objectives in the new policy document are indeed comprehensive an d quite appropriate. 2.4POLICY EVALUATIONIt might be difficult to evaluate all the policies objectively given the space and the focus. However, evidence from some authors (Olayemi 1995, Olamola 1998, Garb 1998) has indicated minimal positive impact of these policies. Also, the performance of the sector is far from being fully satisfactory. The evidence of these is the decaying rural infrastructure, decline domestic and foreign investment in agriculture. In fact theincreasing withdrawal of manufacturing companies from their backward integrated agricultural ventures has reduced investment in the sector considerably. Input supply and distribution have been inefficient and most agricultural institutions are ineffective. The evidence of ineffectiveness is the scrapping in the year 2000 of some of the institutions established for agricultural production, a tiny examination of the policies and there implementation over the years to show policy instability. This problem is not unconnected with the political instability in the country. Between 1979 and 1999, the country has passed through five military and civilian regimes. In between the minister of agriculture at the federal level and the various commissioners for agriculture at the state level were changed several times on the average of one per two years. Several policy measures were stated and changed without sufficient rating for policy effect or result. 2.4.1POLICY INCONSISTENCIES.With respect to agricultural production, the sector has passed through several periods of production and unbridled opening up for competition. It has also passed through eras of no government and less government involvement in direct agricultural production. The consistencies of policy transparency, leads to poor implementation and mismanagement of policy instruments. 2.5EMPERICAL REVIEWOji-Okoro (2011) investigate the contribution of agricultural sector on the Nigerian economic development and reveal that foreign direct investment on agriculture contribute the most (56.43), this means that for every unit of change in FDI on agriculture there is a corresponding change of 56.43 unit in GDP in Nigeria. Suleiman and Aminu (2010) conducted research on the contribution of agriculture, petroleum and manufacturing sector of the Nigerian economy and found out that agricultural sector is contributing higher than both petroleum and manufacturing sectors. The paper reveals that agriculture is contributing 1.7978 units to GDP while petroleum is contributing 1.14 units to GDP which is less than the contribution of agriculture. Awe and Ajayi (2009) conducted research on the diversification of the significant when the log of revenue from agriculture was tested on the revenue from agriculture. About 60 percent of the movement could beexplained in the relationship. The findings from the study further revealed that dynamic relationship exists between the revenue from the non-oil sector economic development.Ekpo and Umoh (2012) re vealed that the contribution of agriculture to GDP, which was 63 percent in 1960, declined to 34 percent in 1988, not because the industrial sector increased its share but due to neglect of agriculture sector. It was therefore not surprising that by 1975, the economy had become a net importer of basic food items. The apparent increase in industry and manufacturing from 1978 to 1988 was due to activities in the mining sub-sector, especially petroleum. Muhammad and (2006) conducted study on production of agriculture in Nigeria and revealed that the negative coefficient of the value (-0.07) of the food imports indicates that as food import increases, domestic agricultural production decreases. This might be due to the fact that food importation exposes the local farmers to unfair competition by foreign producers who usually take advantage of economies of scale in production due to their access to better production technology. The positive coefficient (286.91) of the GDP growth rate ind icates that increase in the GDP also moves domestic agricultural production in the same direction. This shows that increased domestic economic activity has the impact of increasing the domestic agricultural production.This may be due to the fact that most economic activity in the country is related to agriculture. The result also shows that population increases has been a major contribution to domestic agricultural production in Nigeria with the coefficient (18424.73). This may be due to the fact that majority of the populace are engaged in agriculture, meaning more hand on the farm as population increases. The coefficient of consumer price king was positive (8.49). This shows that as consumer price increases domestic agricultural production also increases, meaning that domestic agricultural production is positively related to increase in consumer prices. This may be due to the fact that increase in price stimulates supply on the farmers side leading to more production of food. Mor e agro-processing activities must therefore be embarked upon in order that farmers may be able to dispose of their produce at fairly reasonable prices. The result of the coefficient (0.04) of government expenditure was positive, that is domestic agricultural production is positively related to increase in government expenditure, meaning that as government expends more on agriculture, domesticagricultural production also increases. The reason why it was not significant might be due to the fact that government has not been investing so much on agriculture over the years.